Welcome to ID 543
Introduction to R
About this class
- Quick! Intense!
- Daily homeworks & final project
- Use office hours! Your classmates! The internet!
- It will require practice afterward, and time to sink in
- The goal is to set you up for success and give you resources to learn more
Tip
Experiment! You are not going to break anything!
About this class
- Everything you need is at http://id543.louisahsmith.com
- Canvas will link you there, but good to bookmark as well
- Everything admin/grade-related on Canvas
- General format:
- Some overview slides
- An example together
- Practice on your own/with your classmates
- Repeat
Tip
Try to solve a problem yourself first, classmate second, teaching team third
Homeworks
Did you make a good-faith effort to answer the question using the tools we’ve covered in class?
- Read the error message carefully. Check for missing/extra commas and parentheses. Restart R and reload the data.
- Go back to the slides. What were the day’s goals? What were the functions we covered?
- Check out the reading – it can be good to get another perspective.
- Google using key words from the class. There are lots of ways to do things, but try to find strategies using tools we’ve covered in class (e.g., if you search with “tidyverse” you’ll find a lot of what we cover).
- I rarely recommend ChatGPT, etc. for learning, but it has some uses with R. Specify that you want to use the
tidyverseand ask it to write code using the functions we’ve covered in class. Make sure you understand and triple check its output! Everything you’ll need to know is covered in class – it won’t serve you well to just copy and paste code you don’t understand.
- I rarely recommend ChatGPT, etc. for learning, but it has some uses with R. Specify that you want to use the
- Ask a classmate how they approached it. Don’t copy and paste – even if you end up writing exactly what they did, type it out yourself for practice.
- If you can’t solve a problem, include code you tried and describe the strategies you used to try to solve it.
About this class
- Day 1: dataframes and variables
- Day 2: data manipulation and management
- Day 3: models and tables
- Day 4: figures and more
About Louisa
- Assistant professor at Northeastern University
- Department of Public Health & Health Sciences and the Roux Institute (Portland)
- Started using R during my master’s (so 10+ years of experience)
- Learned mostly by doing!
- Twitter, blogs, posit::conf videos, meetups
- First iteration of this class when I was a PhD student here
- Basically everything I do is in R!
About Yunge
Education
- Bachelor’s Degree in Statistics, University of Pittsburgh
- MS Epidemiology, Harvard
Experience
- Research in food insecurity (using R!)
- Developed and taught workshop for BPS high schoolers in R
Today’s goals
- Familiarize yourselves with RStudio
- Introduce you to the
tidyverseand the concept of packages - Explore data stored in dataframes
- Create new variables
- Learn about factor variables and how to manipulate them
RStudio
Start fresh
- If you have used R previously, an old workspace may still be active when you open RStudio
- You always want to start with a fresh session
- Go to Tools -> Global Options, and under General, change these settings:
Tip
Now, you can just quit and restart RStudio if something goes wrong! You can also go to Session -> Restart R to clear your session.
Rainbow parentheses
Always confirm you are closing your parentheses!
Tools -> Global Options -> Code -> Display -> Rainbow Parentheses
Print output to console
You can run…
- code that you type directly in the console
- code you won’t need to run again
- code in an
.Rscript - code in a
.qmd(Quarto) or.Rmd(R Markdown) file- code you want to render to an html, word, or pdf file
I like to have all code print to the console for consistency:
Packages
- Some functions are built into R
mean(),lm(),table(), etc.
- They actually come from built-in packages
base,stats,graphics, etc.
- Anyone (yes, anyone) build their own package to add to the functionality of R
{ggplot2},{dplyr},{data.table},{survival}, etc.![]()
1
1Packages
- You have to install a package once1
- You then have to load the package every time you want to use it
Packages
“You only have to buy the book once, but you have to go get it out of the bookshelf every time you want to read it.”
Several days later…
Package details
- When you use
install.packages, packages are downloaded from CRAN (The Comprehensive R Archive Network)- This is also where you downloaded R
- Packages can be hosted lots of other places, such as Bioconductor (for bioinformatics), and Github (for personal projects or while still developing)
- The folks at CRAN check to make things “work” in some sense, but don’t check on the statistical methods…
- But because R is open-source, you can always read the code yourself
- Two functions from different packages can have the same name… if you load them both, you may have some trouble
Help from RStudio
When you have a script that uses a package you don’t have installed, RStudio will often (but not always!) tell you – just click “Install”!
Demo
Script vs. console, installing packages, and changing settings
The biggest difference between R and Stata is that R can have many different objects in its environment
- datasets, numbers, figures, etc.
- you have to be explicit about storing and retrieving objects
- e.g., what dataset a variable belongs to
R uses <- to store objects in the environment
I call this the “assignment arrow”
Now vals holds those values
Warning
No assignment arrow means that the object will be printed to the console (and lost forever!)
Objects
We can retrieve those values by running just the name of the object
We can also perform operations on them using functions like mean()
If we want to keep the result of that operation, we need to use <- again
Types of data (classes)
We could also create a character vector:
Or a logical vector:
Note
We’ll see more options as we go along!
Types of objects
We created vectors with the c() function (c stands for concatenate)
We could also create a matrix of values with the matrix() function:
Indices
The numbers in square brackets are indices, which we can use to pull out values:
We can pull out rows or columns from matrices:
Exercise
Pre-class challenges
Dataframes
- We usually do analysis in R with dataframes (or some variant)
- Dataframes basically work like spreadsheets: here, columns are variables, and rows are observations
- Here’s some data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, which we will be using in class:
# A tibble: 1,205 × 15
id glasses eyesight sleep_wkdy sleep_wknd nsibs race_eth sex region
<dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl>
1 3 0 1 5 7 3 3 2 1
2 6 1 2 6 7 1 3 1 1
3 8 0 2 7 9 7 3 2 1
4 16 1 3 6 7 3 3 2 1
5 18 0 3 10 10 2 3 1 3
6 20 1 2 7 8 2 3 2 1
7 27 0 1 8 8 1 3 2 1
8 49 1 1 8 8 6 3 2 1
9 57 1 2 7 8 1 3 2 1
10 67 0 1 8 8 1 3 1 1
# ℹ 1,195 more rows
# ℹ 6 more variables: income <dbl>, age_bir <dbl>, eyesight_cat <fct>,
# glasses_cat <fct>, race_eth_cat <fct>, sex_cat <fct>New function: glimpse()
We can get a quick overview of the data with the glimpse() function:
Rows: 1,205
Columns: 15
$ id <dbl> 3, 6, 8, 16, 18, 20, 27, 49, 57, 67, 86, 96, 97, 98, 117,…
$ glasses <dbl> 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, …
$ eyesight <dbl> 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 5, 1, 1, 1, 1, 3, 2, 3, …
$ sleep_wkdy <dbl> 5, 6, 7, 6, 10, 7, 8, 8, 7, 8, 8, 7, 7, 7, 8, 7, 7, 8, 8,…
$ sleep_wknd <dbl> 7, 7, 9, 7, 10, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 7, 8, 7, 8, 7, 4, 8, 8,…
$ nsibs <dbl> 3, 1, 7, 3, 2, 2, 1, 6, 1, 1, 7, 2, 7, 2, 2, 4, 9, 2, 2, …
$ race_eth <dbl> 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, …
$ sex <dbl> 2, 1, 2, 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, …
$ region <dbl> 1, 1, 1, 1, 3, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, …
$ income <dbl> 22390, 35000, 7227, 48000, 4510, 50000, 20000, 23900, 232…
$ age_bir <dbl> 19, 30, 17, 31, 19, 30, 27, 24, 21, 36, 17, 19, 29, 30, 2…
$ eyesight_cat <fct> Excellent, Very Good, Very Good, Good, Good, Very Good, E…
$ glasses_cat <fct> Doesn't wear glasses, Wears glasses/contacts, Doesn't wea…
$ race_eth_cat <fct> "Non-Black, Non-Hispanic", "Non-Black, Non-Hispanic", "No…
$ sex_cat <fct> Female, Male, Female, Female, Male, Female, Female, Femal…Note
Notice that I write a function name followed by parentheses to signal it is a function, and can take arguments within the parentheses
Helpful hint for reading these slides
function()followed by parentheses means it’s a functionarg =means it’s an argument to the function{package}means it’s an R packagepackage::function()means it’s a function from a package
Note
Of course sometimes I miss things, so feel free to ask if you are confused at any point!
New function: summary()
We can also get a summary of the data with the summary() function:
id glasses eyesight sleep_wkdy
Min. : 3 Min. :0.0000 Min. :1.00 Min. : 0.000
1st Qu.: 2317 1st Qu.:0.0000 1st Qu.:1.00 1st Qu.: 6.000
Median : 4744 Median :1.0000 Median :2.00 Median : 7.000
Mean : 5229 Mean :0.5178 Mean :1.99 Mean : 6.643
3rd Qu.: 7937 3rd Qu.:1.0000 3rd Qu.:3.00 3rd Qu.: 8.000
Max. :12667 Max. :1.0000 Max. :5.00 Max. :13.000
sleep_wknd nsibs race_eth sex
Min. : 0.000 Min. : 0.000 Min. :1.000 Min. :1.000
1st Qu.: 6.000 1st Qu.: 2.000 1st Qu.:2.000 1st Qu.:1.000
Median : 7.000 Median : 3.000 Median :3.000 Median :2.000
Mean : 7.267 Mean : 3.937 Mean :2.395 Mean :1.584
3rd Qu.: 8.000 3rd Qu.: 5.000 3rd Qu.:3.000 3rd Qu.:2.000
Max. :14.000 Max. :16.000 Max. :3.000 Max. :2.000
region income age_bir eyesight_cat
Min. :1.000 Min. : 0 Min. :13.00 Excellent:474
1st Qu.:2.000 1st Qu.: 6000 1st Qu.:19.00 Very Good:385
Median :3.000 Median :11155 Median :22.00 Good :249
Mean :2.593 Mean :15289 Mean :23.45 Fair : 78
3rd Qu.:3.000 3rd Qu.:20000 3rd Qu.:27.00 Poor : 19
Max. :4.000 Max. :75001 Max. :52.00
glasses_cat race_eth_cat sex_cat
Doesn't wear glasses :581 Hispanic :211 Male :501
Wears glasses/contacts:624 Black :307 Female:704
Non-Black, Non-Hispanic:687
Indices in dataframes
We can pull out data from dataframes using the “square bracket notation” we already saw:
# A tibble: 1 × 15
id glasses eyesight sleep_wkdy sleep_wknd nsibs race_eth sex region
<dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl>
1 8 0 2 7 9 7 3 2 1
# ℹ 6 more variables: income <dbl>, age_bir <dbl>, eyesight_cat <fct>,
# glasses_cat <fct>, race_eth_cat <fct>, sex_cat <fct>Dollar sign notation
It’s much more useful to be able to pull out a variable by its name, though:
[1] Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Male
[11] Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female
[21] Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female
[31] Male Male Male Female Female Male Female Female Male Female
[41] Female Male Female Male Female Male Male Female Male Male
[51] Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Male Male
[61] Male Female Male Female Female Male Male Female Female Male
[71] Female Male Male Male Female Male Male Male Male Female
[81] Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female
[91] Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female
[101] Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Male Male Female
[111] Female Male Male Male Male Female Male Male Male Male
[121] Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Male
[131] Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Female
[141] Male Male Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Female
[151] Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Male Male
[161] Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Male
[171] Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female
[181] Female Male Male Female Male Female Male Female Female Female
[191] Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Male
Levels: Male FemaleSummarize a single variable
We can also get a summary of a single variable:
Variables
- Variables can be different types, including numeric, character, logical, and factor.
- You can check what type of variable you’re dealing with:
class(nlsy$sex_cat)(factor!) - A special type of dataframe called a “tibble” will show you at the top:
# A tibble: 1,205 × 15
id glasses eyesight sleep_wkdy sleep_wknd nsibs race_eth sex region
<dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl>
1 3 0 1 5 7 3 3 2 1
2 6 1 2 6 7 1 3 1 1
3 8 0 2 7 9 7 3 2 1
4 16 1 3 6 7 3 3 2 1
5 18 0 3 10 10 2 3 1 3
6 20 1 2 7 8 2 3 2 1
7 27 0 1 8 8 1 3 2 1
8 49 1 1 8 8 6 3 2 1
9 57 1 2 7 8 1 3 2 1
10 67 0 1 8 8 1 3 1 1
# ℹ 1,195 more rows
# ℹ 6 more variables: income <dbl>, age_bir <dbl>, eyesight_cat <fct>,
# glasses_cat <fct>, race_eth_cat <fct>, sex_cat <fct>
tibbles are basically just pretty dataframes
id glasses eyesight sleep_wkdy
1 3 0 1 5
2 6 1 2 6
3 8 0 2 7
4 16 1 3 6
5 18 0 3 10
6 20 1 2 7
7 27 0 1 8
8 49 1 1 8
9 57 1 2 7
10 67 0 1 8
11 86 0 3 8
12 96 1 5 7
13 97 1 1 7
14 98 0 1 7
15 117 0 1 8
16 137 0 1 7
17 172 0 3 7
18 179 1 2 8
19 186 1 3 8
20 200 1 3 8
21 205 0 4 7
22 218 1 2 6
23 227 0 2 8
24 237 0 5 7
25 242 0 1 8
26 243 0 1 7
27 244 1 2 7
28 247 0 4 7
29 250 0 1 6
30 256 1 2 6
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32 274 1 3 6
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34 290 0 2 7
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36 317 1 2 7
37 333 0 2 6
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41 354 1 2 6
42 357 0 1 7
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44 377 0 1 5
45 382 1 4 6
46 392 0 1 6
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48 400 1 1 7
49 409 1 3 7
50 410 0 1 6
51 422 1 2 7
52 423 1 1 6
53 437 0 1 5
54 442 0 3 7
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56 444 1 1 8
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1205 12667 0 3 5Different ways to do the same thing
There are usually multiple ways to achieve a task in R. Ideally we’d like solutions that are:
- readable: If you share your code with someone, can they figure out what you’re doing?
- reliable: Is this way always going to work, even if the data is slightly different?
- safe: Is this way going to introduce errors into your code without you noticing?
- fast: Is this an efficient way to do things, given all of the above?
We’ll focus on the tidyverse because I think it’s the optimal mix of those characteristics
tidyverse
The same people who make RStudio also are responsible for a set of packages called the tidyverse
tidyverse
install.packages("tidyverse")actually downloads more than a dozen packages1library(tidyverse)loads:
ggplot2, dplyr, tidyr, readr, purrr, tibble, stringr, forcats, lubridate
This is by no means the only way to manage your data, but I find that a lot of the time, it’s the easiest and simplest way to get things done.
Exercise
Data
Creating variables
Two (of several) ways to take the (natural) log of income and store it in the dataframe:
OR
Note
The second way may look longer now, but we’ll see later why it’s useful when we make lots of variables at once!
New function: Creating a new variable with mutate()
General format:
We can do whatever we want to a variable to make a new one:
Tip
mutate() is a function that acts on a dataframe, so when we use the assignment arrow, it’s to store the dataframe with the new variable back in the same place
Making variables in “Base R”
nlsy$region_cat <- factor(nlsy$region)
nlsy$income <- round(nlsy$income)
nlsy$age_bir_cent <- nlsy$age_bir - mean(nlsy$age_bir)
nlsy$index <- 1:nrow(nlsy)
nlsy$slp_wkdy_cat <- ifelse(nlsy$sleep_wkdy < 5, "little",
ifelse(nlsy$sleep_wkdy < 7, "some",
ifelse(nlsy$sleep_wkdy < 9, "ideal",
ifelse(nlsy$sleep_wkdy < 12, "lots", NA)
)
)
)Very quickly your code can get overrun with dollar signs (and parentheses, and arrows)
Cleaner way to make lots of new variables
nlsy <- mutate(nlsy, # dataset
# new variables
region_cat = factor(region, labels = c("Northeast", "North Central", "South", "West")),
income = round(income),
age_bir_cent = age_bir - mean(age_bir),
index = row_number() # a special function that gives the row number
# could make as many as we want....
)Tip
We can refer to variables within the same dataset (region, income, age_bir) without the $ notation
mutate() tips and tricks
You still need to store your dataset somewhere, so make sure to include the assignment arrow
- Good practice to make new copies with different names as you go along
nlsy_w_cats <- mutate(nlsy, # dataset
region_cat = factor(region),
sex_cat = factor(sex),
race_eth_cat = factor(race_eth))
nlsy_clean <- mutate(nlsy_w_cats, # dataset
region_cat = fct_recode(region_cat,
"Northeast" = "1",
"North Central" = "2",
"South" = "3",
"West" = "4"),
sex_cat = fct_relevel(sex_cat,
"Female", "Male"))mutate() tips and tricks
- You can refer immediately to variables you just made:
Tip
“Chunk” your work on the same/similar variables so you can keep track of how a variable is derived.
Exercise
Mutate
Factor variables
When I downloaded the data originally, it was all numeric (“double”)
I already converted some variables into categorical (“factor”) variables (using the codebook)
- factors have levels
- the first level is the reference level when you include it in a regression
New function: count()
We can explore factor variables (and other types!) using count():
# A tibble: 2 × 2
glasses_cat n
<fct> <int>
1 Doesn't wear glasses 581
2 Wears glasses/contacts 624Tip
Like mutate(), this function takes a dataframe as its first argument. The second argument is the variable you want to count.
Cross-tabulations
Actually, count() can take a whole series of variable names:
# A tibble: 4 × 3
glasses_cat sex_cat n
<fct> <fct> <int>
1 Doesn't wear glasses Male 280
2 Doesn't wear glasses Female 301
3 Wears glasses/contacts Male 221
4 Wears glasses/contacts Female 403Note
If this isn’t in the format you want your cross-tab in, don’t worry – we’ll see other funtions that make better tables later. This output is handy though, because it’s a dataframe! (Actually, a tibble!)
New function: converting a variable with factor()
Again, two ways of doing the same thing:
OR
The factor() function does nothing to the names of the values
[1] "factor"[1] "1" "2" "3" "4"Warning
The levels will be in numeric order, or alphabetical order if a character variable. This means that factor(c(1, 2, ..., 10)) will have a different ordering than factor(c("1", "2", ..., "10")).
We can assign names to the values
Warning
Make sure the order of the levels = and labels = arguments always match!
It’s always good practice to confirm everything looks right
Exercise
Intro to factors
My favorite R function: case_when()
I used to write endless strings of ifelse() statements
- If A is TRUE, then B; if not, then if C is true, then D; if not, then if E is true, then F; if not, …
This can be extremely hard to follow!
case_when() syntax
- Ask a question (i.e., something that will give
TRUEorFALSE) on the left-hand side of a~ sleep_wkdy < 5 ~- If
TRUE, variable will take on value of whatever is on the right-hand side of the~ ~ "little"- Proceeds in order … if TRUE, takes that value and stops
- If you want some default value, you can end with
.default = {something}, which every observation will get if everything else isFALSE .default = NAis the default default
Logicals: answers to TRUE/FALSE questions
When we want to know if something is
- equal:
== - not equal:
!= - greater than or equal to:
>= - less than or equal to:
<=
We also can ask about multiple conditions with & (and) and | (or).
case_when() combines a lot of “if-else” statements
nlsy <- mutate(nlsy, slp_cat_wkdy =
case_when(sleep_wkdy < 5 ~ "little",
sleep_wkdy < 7 ~ "some",
sleep_wkdy < 9 ~ "ideal",
sleep_wkdy < 12 ~ "lots",
.default = NA
)
)
count(nlsy, sleep_wkdy, slp_cat_wkdy)# A tibble: 13 × 3
sleep_wkdy slp_cat_wkdy n
<dbl> <chr> <int>
1 0 little 1
2 2 little 4
3 3 little 14
4 4 little 48
5 5 some 136
6 6 some 326
7 7 ideal 357
8 8 ideal 269
9 9 lots 32
10 10 lots 14
11 11 lots 1
12 12 <NA> 2
13 13 <NA> 1case_when() example
- Which value would someone with
sleep_wknd = 8andsleep_wkdy = 4go? - What about someone with
sleep_wknd = 11andsleep_wkdy = 4? - What about someone with
sleep_wknd = 7andsleep_wkdy = 7?
Creating a factor variable from a character variable after using case_when()
What order will these levels be in?
Side note: another way to look at factors
In the next few slides, I’ll use the summary() function (rather than count()) to look at factors
- It’s easier to fit the output on slides
- However, it doesn’t show anything interesting for character variables so I usually prefer
count(), which does
forcats package
- Tries to make working with factors safe and convenient
- Functions to make new levels, reorder levels, combine levels, etc.
- All the functions start with
fct_so they’re easy to find using tab-complete! - Automatically loads with
library(tidyverse)
Reorder factors
The fct_relevel() function allows us just to rewrite the names of the categories out in the order we want them (safely).
What if you misspell something?
nlsy <- mutate(nlsy,
slp_cat_wkdy_ord2 = fct_relevel(slp_cat_wkdy,
"little",
"soome",
"ideal",
"lots"))Warning: There was 1 warning in `mutate()`.
ℹ In argument: `slp_cat_wkdy_ord2 = fct_relevel(slp_cat_wkdy, "little",
"soome", "ideal", "lots")`.
Caused by warning:
! 1 unknown level in `f`: soomelittle ideal lots some NA's
67 626 47 462 3 You get a warning, and levels you didn’t mention are pushed to the end.
Recode a factor
Other orders
How about from most people to least?
South North Central West Northeast
411 333 255 206 Or the reverse of that?
Northeast West North Central South
206 255 333 411 Tip
This will be handy when running regressions and creating graphs.
Add levels
We have some missing values – let’s say we want to include them as a group in a table, figure, or regression.
Remove levels
Or maybe we want to combine some levels that don’t have a lot of observations in them:
Add and remove
Or we can have R choose which ones to combine based on how few observations they have:
nlsy <- mutate(nlsy, slp_cat_wkdy_lump =
fct_lump(slp_cat_wkdy, n = 2))
summary(nlsy$slp_cat_wkdy_lump)ideal some Other NA's
626 462 114 3 - Probably not a good idea for factors with an inherent order
There are 25 fct_ functions in the package. The sky’s the limit when it comes to manipulating your categorical variables in R!
I never remember all of them – the goal is not for you to either, but for you to be able to find what you need!
Exercise
Factor functions
Today’s summary
- We learned about the
tidyverseand how to install and load packages - We learned about the
tibbleand how to create new variables in a dataframe - We learned about factor variables and how to manipulate them
Today’s functions
install.packages("package"): install a package (once)library(package): load a package (every time you want to use it)c(value, value, value): concatenate values into a vectormean(vector);sd(vector): calculate the mean and standard deviation of a vectorglimpse(dataframe): get a quick overview of a dataframesummary(dataframe);summary(dataframe$variable): get a summary of a dataframe or single variablemutate(dataframe, new_variable = function(old_variable)): create a new variablefactor(variable, labels = , levels = ): convert a variable to a factorcase_when(variable < value ~ "label", variable == value ~ "label"): create a new variable based on a series of conditionsfct_relevel(),fct_recode(),fct_infreq(),fct_rev(),fct_na_value_to_level(),fct_collapse(),fct_lump(), etc.: functions to manipulate factors (don’t worry about memorizing, look up when you need to!)
Welcome to ID 543 Introduction to R